Impact o= f project-based learning on inorganic chemistry laboratory practices in agricultural higher education

Impacto del aprendizaje basado en proyectos en l= as prácticas de laboratorio de química inorgánica en la educación superior agrícola

3D"Interfaz

¹=	Melany Nicole Benavides Males	https:= //orcid.org/0009-0000-1959-1291
	Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi (UPEC), Tulcán, Ecuador. melanyn.benavides@upec.edu.ec
²=	Juan Ramón García-Díaz	https:= //orcid.org/0000-0002-2966-7824
	Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas. juanramon@uclv.edu.cu
³=	Hernán Rigoberto Benavides Rosales	https:= //orcid.org/0000-0001-9236-3076
	Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi (UPEC), Tulcán, Ecuador. hernan.benavides@upec.edu.ec

&n= bsp;	Artículo de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica Enviado: Revisado: Aceptado: Publicado: DOI: <= /o:p>
=	=
Cítese:	&= nbsp;	= = = = = =
		CIENCIA DIGITAL= , es una revista multidisciplinaria, trimestral, que se publicará en soporte electr= ónico tiene como misión contribuir a la formación de profesionales competentes con visión humanística y crítica que sean capaces de exponer sus resultados investigativos y científicos en la misma medida que se promueva mediante su intervención cambios positivos en la sociedad. https://cienciadigital.org = La revista es editada por la Editorial Ciencia Digital (Editorial de prestigio registra= da en la Cámara Ecuatoriana de Libro con No de Afiliación 663)= www.celibro.org.ec <= span style=3D'text-decoration:none'>
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Palabr= as claves: aprendizaje basado en proyectos; prácticas de laboratorio; educación superior; educación química; aprendizaje significativo; competencias científicas.	&= nbsp;	Resumen Int= roducción: la enseñanza tradicional de laboratorio en química inorgánica a nivel universitario sue= le priorizar el cumplimiento procedimental sobre la reflexión crítica, limitando la participación activa de los estudiant= es y debilitando la integración de la teoría con la práct= ica profesional. Objetivo: este estudio evaluó la asociación entre una intervenci&o= acute;n de Aprendizaje Basado en Proyectos (PBL) y los cambios en la percepción de los estudiantes sobre las prácticas de laboratorio dentro del programa de Ingeniería Agrícola de la Universidad Politécnica Estatal de Carchi. Metodología: se implementó un diseño cuasi-experimental de pretest - post test con un en= foque predominantemente cuantitativo. Cincuenta y un estudiantes participaron e= n la fase diagnóstica y 35 completaron la intervención pedagógica organizada en equipos colaborativos. Resultados: los datos se recopilaron mediante encue= stas estructuradas a escala Likert, complementadas con observación diagnóstica y análisis documental. Las respuestas se dicotomizaron y analizaron utilizando la prueba exacta de Fisher con ajus= te de Holm para comparaciones múltiples. Los resultados posteriores a= la intervención mostraron aumentos consistentes en las respuestas favorables en todos los indicadores evaluados. Se observaron mayores avan= ces en competencias experimentales auto percibidas relacionadas con el equili= brio ácido-base y la interpretación crítica (+32,60 puntos porcentuales; RR =3D 1,55), participación activa e integraci&oacut= e;n teoría–práctica (+31,54 pp; RR =3D 1,50), y la integración del trabajo en equipo (+29,58 pp; RR =3D 1,46). Cinco de los seis indicadores dem= ostraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p < 0,05). = Conclusiones:<= /b> aunque la satisfacción general aumentó, la significación estadística no se mantuvo = tras el ajuste. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la enseñanza contextualiza= da basada en PBL en laboratorio está asociada con mejoras en la implicación y en las competencias experimentales percibidas en los programas de ciencias aplicadas. Área de estudio general: Educación. Área de estudio específica: Aprendizaje Basado en Proyectos. Tipo de artícu= lo: original.
Keywords:project-based learning; laboratory practices; higher education; chemical education; meaningful learning; scientific competencies.		Abstract Introduction: Traditional laboratory teaching in inorganic chemistry at the university level usually prioritizes procedural complian= ce over critical reflection, limiting the active participation of students a= nd weakening the integration of theory with professional practice. Obj= ective: This study evaluated the association between a Project-Based Learning (PBL) intervention and changes in students' perception of laboratory practices within the agricultural engineering program of the State Polytechnic University of Carchi. Met= hodology: A quasi-experimental pre-test - post-te= st design was implemented with a quantitative approach. Fifty-one students participated in the diagnostic phase and 35 completed the pedagogical intervention organized in collaborative teams. Results: Data were collected through structured Likert-scale surveys, complemented by diagnostic observation and document= ary analysis. Responses were dichotomized and analyzed using Fisher's exact t= est with Holm adjustment for multiple comparisons. Post-intervention outcomes showed consistent increases in favorable responses across all indicators assessed. Greater advances were observed in self-perceived experimental competencies related to acid-base balance and critical interpretation (+3= 2.60 percentage points; RR =3D 1.55), active participation and theory-practice integration (+31.54 pp; RR =3D 1.50), and the integration of teamwork (+2= 9.58 pp; RR =3D 1.46). Five of the six indicators showed statistically signifi= cant differences (p < 0.05). Conclusions: although overall satisfaction increased, statistical significance was not maintained after adjustment. These findi= ngs suggest that PBL-based contextualized teaching in the laboratory is associated with improvements in perceived involvement and experimental competencies in applied science programs. General Area of Study: Education. Specific area of study: Project-Based Learning. Typ= e of article: original. =

<= /span>

Int= roduction

Scientif= ic and technological development in higher education institutions poses new challenges when preparing students with the knowledge and skills required to address complex professional problems (López, 2025; Ojeda et al., 2025; Núñez et al., 2025). Among t= hese demands, there is a growing need to promote meaningful learning and strengt= hen the connection between theory and practice. At the same time, science educa= tion faces difficulties in chemistry instruction, where fundamental concepts suc= h as atomic structure, chemical reactions, and thermodynamics present an elevated level of abstraction.

Laborato= ry practices play an essential role in student training, as they enable learne= rs to apply procedures and reinforce theoretical knowledge through practical experience (Espinosa-Ríos = et al., 2016; Muñoz & Ramirez, 2024). Nevertheless, in vario= us educational settings, laboratory activities are often limited to procedural execution, with students following instructions without critically analyzing their purpose or relevance (Mu&nt= ilde;oz & Ramirez, 2024). As a result, a gap emerges between theory, experimentation, and professional performance, negatively affecting concept= ual understanding and student motivation toward the subject.<= /p>

In respo= nse to this situation, Project-Based Learning (PBL) has been consolidate= d as a strategy to promote problem-solving, inquiry, and collaborative work thro= ugh the development of projects linked to real or contextualized situations (Ojeda et al., 2025; Ayala et al., 2020;= Lucero & Velasteguí, 2018; Quiñónez et al., 2025). Several studies have shown that PBL enhances conceptual understanding, impr= oves knowledge retention, and strengthens critical thinking skills (Montesdeoca et al., 2020; Freeman et al= ., 2014; Caizaluisa et al., 2024; Chica et al., 2022). In addition, this methodology contributes to the development of transversal competencies such= as communication, time management, and decision-making skills, which are essen= tial in contemporary professional training (Matilainen et al., 2021; Montaño et al., 2025). When implemented in laboratory settings, PBL transforms experimental activities into opportunit= ies for inquiry and analysis, moving beyond the mere repetition of procedures (= Laal & Ghodsi, 2012; Davidson et al= ., 2014; M= cKeachie, & S= vinicki, 2010).

Furtherm= ore, PBL enables students to critically evaluate results, contextualize different laboratory practices, and integrate them into a broader understanding of the subject while fostering collaboration among peers (Ayala et al., 2020).

The State Polytechnic University of Carchi (UPEC) has laboratories equipped with basic infrastructure and qualified technical-academic staff. However, the inorgan= ic chemistry course within the agricultural engineering program lacks a pedagogical methodology that positions students as active protagonists in t= heir own learning process.

For this reason, difficulties in the assimilation of experimental content have been identified in the teaching-learning process of chemistry at UPEC. Most laboratory practices are conducted under a traditional approach in which the instructor acts as the central source of knowledge, delivering pre-structur= ed content to students rather than encouraging them to construct and appropria= te knowledge according to their cognitive frameworks. This traditional system limits students’ analysis to formulate questions, design experimental strategies, and critically analyze results, generating a disconnect between laboratory practice and real professional challenges.

The objective of this research was to design and implement an instructional gui= de based on Project Based Learning as a pedagogical methodology for ino= rganic chemistry laboratory practices at UPEC, aimed at improving self-directed learning, student motivation, conceptual understanding, and the integration= of theory and practice.

2. Methodology

This study adopted a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with a quantitative approach, aiming to evaluate the impact of a pedagogical intervention based on Project-Based Learning (PBL) on inorganic chemistry laboratory practices in higher education. During the diagnostic phase, complementary qualitative techniques such as direct observation and document analysis were employed; however, the primary evaluation of the res= ults was based on data obtained through surveys.

The study population consisted of 51 students enrolled in the first semester of the agricultural engineering program at the State Polytechnic University of Carchi (UPEC), w= ho were taking the inorganic chemistry course during the 2023 academic period.= A census sampling approach was applied during the diagnostic phase, including= the entire group; subsequently, 35 students participated in the implementation = of the pedagogical intervention and in the posttest assessment, organized into seven collaborative teams of five members each. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality of the information was ensured strictly for academic purposes.

The reduction in posttest participation was primarily due to volunta= ry participation and academic scheduling constraints. No selective exclusion criteria were applied. Although individual-level matching was not conducted, the posttest group represented students who completed the full pedagogical intervention.

For data collection, three techniques were employed: direct observat= ion, a structured survey, and document analysis. Direct observation was conducted during the diagnostic phase to record the development of laboratory practic= es under a traditional instructional approach, considering indicators such as student participation, clarity of procedures, understanding of objectives, = and time management.

Likewise, a structured survey was administered, consisting of closed-ended questions using a five-point Likert scale (1 =3D strongly disa= gree; 5 =3D strongly agree). The survey was applied before and after the interven= tion and was validated through expert judgment by three faculty members from the area. Finally, document analysis was conducted through the review of course= syllabus, laboratory guides, and curricular guidelines.

2.1. Methodological procedure

The methodological procedure was structured according to the pedagog= ical intervention model based on Project-Based Learning (PBL) illustrated= in Figure 1, which integrates three interrelated levels: thematic modules, experimental mini-projects, and implementation phases.

Figure 1

Conceptual m= odel of the pedagogical intervention based on Project-Based Learning (PBL)<= /o:p>

Module 1 Chemical Nomenclature and Formulation	Module 2 Preparation and Analysis of Solutions	Module 3 Acid-Base Properties and Neutralization

Mini-Project Fertilizer Formulation	Mini-Project Irrigation and Nutrient Solutions	Mini-Project Soil pH Analysis (Acid-Base Titration)

PBL Implementation Phases 1. Guiding Question → 2. Planning → 3. Experimentation →= ; 4. Analysis → 5. Socialization → 6. Formative Assessment

In the first stage, the course contents were organ= ized into three thematic modules: (i) chemical nomenclature and formulation, (ii) preparation and analysis of solutions, a= nd (iii) acid–base properties and neutralization processes. Each module = was designed to address fundamental concepts of inorganic chemistry with emphas= is on the agricultural engineering program.

In the second stage, each module was linked to an experimental mini-project related to the chemical formulation of fertilizer= s, preparation of irrigation and plant nutrition solutions, soil pH analysis, = and acid–base titration. Finally, the Project-Based Learning approach was implemented through the formulation of a guiding question, project planning, experimentation, analysis of results, presentation of findings, and formati= ve assessment, to ensure a progressive learning process and promote the integration of theory and practice.

2.2. Statistical analysis

Pre–post comparisons were conducted using aggregated survey data. Likert-scale items (1–5) were dichotomized in= to favorable responses (ratings 4–5) and non-favorable responses (ratings 1–3) to allow proportion-based analysis. Due to incomplete follow-up (pretest n =3D 51; posttest n =3D 35) and the absence of matched individual= -level data, comparisons between pretest and posttest were analyzed as independent proportions. Differences in favorable response rates were evaluated using Fisher’s exact test (two-sided), which is appropriate for categorical variables and unequal sample sizes. Effect sizes were reported as absolute percentage point differences (Δp =3D Post = − Pre) with 95% confidence intervals calculated using the Newcombe/Wilson met= hod, and risk ratios (RR) were computed to quantify the magnitude of change. To = control multiple comparisons across indicators, p-values were adjusted using the Ho= lm procedure, with statistical significance established at α =3D 0.05. All analyses were performed using Statgraphics Cent= urion (Version 16.1).

2.3. Ethical considerations<= /span>

For this research, student participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained prior to data collection. The responses collected were anonymized and used exclusively for academic resea= rch purposes. The study was conducted in accordance with institutional guidelin= es for educational research and in compliance with confidentiality standards.<= o:p>

3. Results

Table 1<= /span> presents the comparison of responses before and after the implementation of the PBL-based instructional guide. At baseline (n =3D 51), favorable responses = ranged between 58.82% and 84.31%. After the intervention (n =3D 35), these respons= es increased across all indicators, reaching values between 91.43% and 97.14%.=

Table 1

Pre–Post comparison of favorable responses across indicators

Indicator=

Pre

(sí/n, %)

Post

(sí/n, %)

Δp (Po= st/Pre)

IC95% Δp

p =

(Fisher)<= /span>

p =

(Holm)

RR=

Satisfaction with th= e laboratory’s contribution to theoretical understanding

43/51 (84.31%)<= /o:p>

34/35 (97.14%)<= /o:p>

+12.83 pp=

[-6.36; 27.50]<= /o:p>

0.0765

0.0765

1.15

Laboratory guides promote reflection and experimental reasoning

39/51 (76.47%)

34/35 (97.14%)

+20.67 pp

[-0.53; 36.26]

0.0120

0.0360

1.27

Active participation= and theory–practice integration

32/51 (62.75%)

33/35 (94.29%)

+31.54 pp

[6.71; 49.39]

0.0007

0.0044

1.50

Practical assessments facilitate the teaching–learning process

41/51 (80.39%)

34/35 (97.14%)

+16.75 pp

[-3.52; 31.95]

0.0243

0.0486

1.21

Theory–practice integration and teamwork

33/51 (64.71%)

33/35 (94.29%)

+29.58 pp

[5.03; 47.43]

0.0015

0.0059

1.46

Experimental competencies (acid–base equilibrium and critical interpretation)

30/51 (58.82%)

32/35 (91.43%)

+32.60 pp

[6.38; 51.88]

0.0012

0.0059

1.55

Note. Δp =3D percentage point difference (Post −= Pre); CI =3D 95% confidence interval; RR =3D risk ratio. Fisher’s exact test (two-sided) was used, with Holm correction for multiple comparisons. Favora= ble responses correspond to Likert 4–5.

The largest absolute improvement was observed in experimental competencies related to acid–base equilibrium and critical interpretation, which increased from 58.82% to 91.43% (Δp =3D +32.60 percentage points; 95% CI [6.38; 51.88]; p_= adj =3D 0.0059; RR =3D 1.55). Similarly, active participation and theory–= practice integration improved from 62.75% to 94.29% (Δp =3D +31.54 pp; 95% CI [6.71; 49.39]; p_adj =3D 0.00= 44; RR =3D 1.50), while integration of theory, practice, and teamwork increased from 64.71% to 94.29% (Δp =3D +29.58 pp; 95% CI= [5.03; 47.43]; p_adj =3D 0.0059; RR =3D 1.46).

Improvements were also observed in students’ perception that laboratory guides promoted reflection and experimental reasoning (Δp =3D +20.67 pp; p_adj =3D 0.0360; RR =3D 1.27) and those practical assessments facilitated the teaching–learning process (Δp =3D +1= 6.75 pp; p_adj =3D 0.0486; RR =3D 1.21).

Although satisfaction with the contribution of laboratory practices to theoretical understanding increased from 84.31% to 97.14%, this change did = not reach statistical significance after Holm adjustment (= p_adj =3D 0.0765; RR =3D 1.15).

Overall, five out of six indicators showed statistically significant improvements following the intervention, indicating a consistent positive association between the PBL intervention and improvements in students’ self-perceived experimental competencies and engagement indicators.

Figure 2 illustrates the comparison of favorable response percentages between pretest and posttest across the evaluated indicators. A consistent upward t= rend is observed in all variables following the implementation of the PBL-based instructional guide.

Figure 2=

Comparison of pretest and posttest percentages for the evaluated variables before and after the PBL intervention

The most pronounced increases are evident in experimental competencie= s, active participation, and theory–practice integration, where posttest values exceed 90%, compared to baseline values below 65%. These visual differences correspond to the largest absolute percentage point gains identified in Figure 2= .

Improvements are also observed in students’ perception that laboratory guides promote reflection and that practical assessments facilit= ate learning, with posttest percentages approaching 97%. Although satisfaction = with the contribution of laboratory practices was already high at baseline (84.3= %), it increased further to 97.1% in the posttest, though this difference did n= ot reach statistical significance after adjustment.

Overall, the graphical representation confirms the substantial improvement in favorable perceptions following the pedagogical intervention= .

4.     Discussion

The results of this study show a consistent and statistically support= ed improvement in most of the evaluated indicators following the implementatio= n of the PBL-based instructional guide. Five out of six variables demonstrated statistically significant increases after Holm correction, suggesting a str= ong positive association between the intervention and students’ self-perc= eived experimental competencies and engagement levels. These findings are consist= ent with previous research indicating that PBL promotes deeper conceptual understanding and meaningful learning in science education contexts (Ayala = et al., 2020; Montesdeoca et al., 2020; Freeman et al., 2014; Chacón-Cu= eva et al., 2023).

The most pronounced improvement was observed in experimental competen= cies related to acid–base equilibrium and critical interpretation (Δp =3D +32.60 pp; p_adj =3D 0.0059; RR =3D 1.55). This substantial increase indicates that students not= only perceived greater mastery of laboratory procedures but also reported enhanc= ed analytical abilities in interpreting experimental results. This outcome ali= gns with studies showing that project-based methodologies strengthen scientific reasoning and analytical capacity in experimental environments (Ayala et al= ., 2020; García et al., 2022; Sosa et al., 2025). The confidence interv= al [6.38; 51.88] further supports the consistency of this improvement, reinfor= cing the pedagogical relevance of contextualized experimentation within PBL.

Similarly, active participation and theory–practice integration increased from 62.75% to 94.29% (Δp =3D +3= 1.54 pp; p_adj =3D 0.0044; RR =3D 1.50). This result sug= gests that the intervention contributed to shifting students from passive procedural execution toward more engaged and reflective laboratory involvement. This finding is consistent with research criticizing traditional laboratory approaches centered on mechanical replication of procedures, which tend to limit reflective reasoning and meaningful learning (Ayala et al., 2020; Aco= sta et al., 2019). A comparable pattern was observed in theory–practice integration and teamwork (Δp =3D +29.58 pp= ; p_adj =3D 0.0059; RR =3D 1.46), highlighting the coll= aborative dimension of the mini-projects and their contribution to strengthening collective problem-solving processes, in line with project-based and collaborative learning models (Davidson et al., 2014; Mera et al., 2026).

Moderate but statistically significant improvements were also identif= ied in students’ perception that laboratory guides promoted reflection and experimental reasoning (Δp =3D +20.67 pp; = p_adj =3D 0.0360; RR =3D 1.27) and that practical ass= essments facilitated the teaching–learning process (Δ= ;p =3D +16.75 pp; p_adj =3D 0.0486; RR =3D 1.21). = These results support prior research emphasizing that inquiry-based and contextualized laboratory experiences enhance scientific competence develop= ment (García et al., 2022; Sosa et al., 2025; Guanot= asig et al., 2025).

Although overall satisfaction with the laboratory’s contributio= n to theoretical understanding increased numerically (Δ= ;p =3D +12.83 pp), this difference did not reach statistical significance after correction for multiple comparisons (p_adj =3D = 0.0765). This outcome may reflect a ceiling effect, given that baseline satisfaction= was already high (84.31%). When initial values approach upper limits, statistic= al capacity to detect additional improvements becomes restricted. Therefore, t= he absence of statistical significance in this variable does not necessarily imply a l= ack of pedagogical benefit but rather limited variability within the sample.

Figure 2 reinforces these interpretations. Post test percentages exceeded 90% across all indicators, while several baseline values were below 65%. This consistent upward trend confirms the internal coherence and magnitude of the observed improvements.

From a theoretical perspective, the strongest gains were concentrated= in higher-order cognitive dimensions: analysis, integration, and application r= ather than general satisfaction. This pattern is consistent with constructivist a= nd experiential learning frameworks, which posit that knowledge is consolidated when learners actively engage in authentic problem-solving situations (D&ia= cute;az & Hernández, 2003; Morales, 2009). Furthermore, the strengthened integration between theory and practice observed in this study supports pri= or evidence identifying contextualization as a key determinant of meaningful learning in chemistry education (Baque-Reyes &a= mp; Portilla-Faican, 2021; López, 2025; Carchipulla & Guevara, 2022).

The observed increase in active participation and teamwork is also consistent with studies indicating that PBL fosters transversal competencies such as communication, collaboration, and decision-making (Vázquez et al., 2025; Laal & Ghodsi, 2012). These competencies are essential in contemporary professional training and applied scientific environments.

Nevertheless, due to the quasi-experimental design and the absence of= a control group, the findings should be interpreted as associative rather than definitive causal evidence. The reduction in posttest sample size (n =3D 35= ) and reliance on self-reported perceptions also limit generalizability. Future research incorporating objective performance indicators, more rigorous experimental designs, and longitudinal follow-up would strengthen the empir= ical evidence.

Overall, the magnitude of the observed changes—particularly in experimental competencies (RR =3D 1.55), active participation (RR =3D 1.50)= , and theory–practice integration (RR =3D 1.46)—suggests that contextualized laboratory PBL may contribute to transforming laboratory environments from predominantly procedural settings into competence-oriented learning ecosystems in applied higher education contexts (Statgraphics.com, 2013).

Con= clusions

·      = The design and implementation of a Project-Based Learning (PBL= ) based instructional guide in inorganic chemistry laboratory practices at the State Polytechnic University of Carchi was associated with improvements in students’ active participation, motivation, and theory–practice integration.

·      = The organization of laboratory activities into thematic modules and mini-projects strengthened conceptual understanding, particularly in acid–base equilibrium analysis. In addition, it facilitated the trans= fer of knowledge to real-world agricultural applications, promoting the develop= ment of scientific and interdisciplinary competencies.

·      = Finally, the intervention contributed to redefining the roles of both faculty and technical staff, shifting from a content-centered approach towa= rd facilitation, mediation, and collaborative guidance, thereby consolidating = an active and interdisciplinary learning environment focused on the developmen= t of professional and transversal competencies.

6.     Authors’ Contribution Statement

The auth= ors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the submitted artic= le.

7.&n= bsp;    Authors’ Contribution Statement

All auth= ors made significant contributions to the preparation of this article.

8.&n= bsp;    Financing costs

This research was funded entirely by the authors' own funds. <= /o:p>

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Indicator=	Pre (sí/n, %)	Post (sí/n, %)	Δp (Po= st/Pre)	IC95% Δp	p = (Fisher)<= /span>	p = (Holm)	RR=
Satisfaction with th= e laboratory’s contribution to theoretical understanding	43/51 (84.31%)<= /o:p>	34/35 (97.14%)<= /o:p>	+12.83 pp=	[-6.36; 27.50]<= /o:p>	0.0765	0.0765	1.15
Laboratory guides promote reflection and experimental reasoning	39/51 (76.47%)	34/35 (97.14%)	+20.67 pp	[-0.53; 36.26]	0.0120	0.0360	1.27
Active participation= and theory–practice integration	32/51 (62.75%)	33/35 (94.29%)	+31.54 pp	[6.71; 49.39]	0.0007	0.0044	1.50
Practical assessments facilitate the teaching–learning process	41/51 (80.39%)	34/35 (97.14%)	+16.75 pp	[-3.52; 31.95]	0.0243	0.0486	1.21
Theory–practice integration and teamwork	33/51 (64.71%)	33/35 (94.29%)	+29.58 pp	[5.03; 47.43]	0.0015	0.0059	1.46
Experimental competencies (acid–base equilibrium and critical interpretation)	30/51 (58.82%)	32/35 (91.43%)	+32.60 pp	[6.38; 51.88]	0.0012	0.0059	1.55